The Atom
Around 460 B.C., Greek philosopher, Democritus, developed the first thought of the smallest part of matter, the atom. The question that started it all: How many times can you break down matter until it can not be broken down any further? He believed that there had to be a point at which a piece of matter would stop being able to be split. He coined the term atoms, for the remaining small particles.(Walker, "Atoms")(Britannica Academic)
A couple thousand years went by without further investigation of this minute particle, as other philosophers and scientists rejected Democritus' theory. Finally, in the 1800's, John Dalton, an English chemist had started to perform experiments with differing chemicals. His experiments eventually led him to believe that matter seemed to contain some lumpish corpuscles(minute particles). These were the same particles(atoms) that Democritus hypothesized about some two thousand years prior.(Walker, "Atoms")(Britannica Academic)
It was then not until 1895 when a British physicist, Ernest Rutherford, who was already a prestigious experimental researcher, agreed to work with Professor J J Thomson of Cambridge University's Cavendish Laboratory. At this time, Thompson was on the verge of the discovery of an even smaller particle, the electron. Knowing that Rutherford had incredible skill in experimentation, Thompson invited him to join him in his research of the electrical conduction of gases. This research later led to the construction of the complete structure of the atom. 1896 came around and there was the big discovery of radioactive atoms. His study turned to the radioactive emission of particles from these atoms. In 1898, he discovered that the atoms emitted two different particles, alpha(positively charged protons bound together with neutrons) and beta(negatively charged electrons). Furthermore, in 1900, a colleague of Rutherford's, Paul Villard, discovered that some of these particles/rays were unaffected to magnetic fields, Rutherford named these gamma rays.(Campbell)
A couple thousand years went by without further investigation of this minute particle, as other philosophers and scientists rejected Democritus' theory. Finally, in the 1800's, John Dalton, an English chemist had started to perform experiments with differing chemicals. His experiments eventually led him to believe that matter seemed to contain some lumpish corpuscles(minute particles). These were the same particles(atoms) that Democritus hypothesized about some two thousand years prior.(Walker, "Atoms")(Britannica Academic)
It was then not until 1895 when a British physicist, Ernest Rutherford, who was already a prestigious experimental researcher, agreed to work with Professor J J Thomson of Cambridge University's Cavendish Laboratory. At this time, Thompson was on the verge of the discovery of an even smaller particle, the electron. Knowing that Rutherford had incredible skill in experimentation, Thompson invited him to join him in his research of the electrical conduction of gases. This research later led to the construction of the complete structure of the atom. 1896 came around and there was the big discovery of radioactive atoms. His study turned to the radioactive emission of particles from these atoms. In 1898, he discovered that the atoms emitted two different particles, alpha(positively charged protons bound together with neutrons) and beta(negatively charged electrons). Furthermore, in 1900, a colleague of Rutherford's, Paul Villard, discovered that some of these particles/rays were unaffected to magnetic fields, Rutherford named these gamma rays.(Campbell)
Nuclear Fission
In 1938, nuclear chemists, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann, conducted several experiments bombarding uranium nuclei with neutrons. The uranium nuclei, they found, when overrun with neutrons, transmutes into a lighter element of that of uranium.("Nuclear Fission, 1938–1942") For example, when uranium-238 is pressed with a bunch of neutrons, occasionally its nucleus will capture one of these neutrons, split and it will form uranium-239. However, uranium-239 is not the only product. Around 207 megaelectron volts is produced along with two or three neutrons and about 10 gamma rays, results from the split particles.(Sowerby) Having these results, the two chemists sent the information of their work to physicist Lise Meitner, who then quickly devised a model with her nephew physicist Otto Frisch and confirmed Hahn and Strassmann's earlier findings. Nuclear Fission was born.("Atomic Bomb Chemistry")("Science Behind the Atom Bomb")
1939. After receiving the news of the successful uranium fission, Danish physicist Neils Bohr, who later found uranium-235 to be the best isotope to produce a chain reaction, traveled to the U.S. Bohr then provided his friend, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, with the exciting news and discovery of nuclear fission. Bohr also knew that the fission of uranium, if controlled could produce huge amounts of energy, which could be used for power, but if it were uncontrolled, it had the ability to become a weapon creating a massive explosion. Frankfurter then relayed the message to President Roosevelt who "was anxious to explore ways for achieving safeguards in relation to X". [the atomic bomb]("Atomic Bomb Chemistry")(Long)
1939. After receiving the news of the successful uranium fission, Danish physicist Neils Bohr, who later found uranium-235 to be the best isotope to produce a chain reaction, traveled to the U.S. Bohr then provided his friend, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, with the exciting news and discovery of nuclear fission. Bohr also knew that the fission of uranium, if controlled could produce huge amounts of energy, which could be used for power, but if it were uncontrolled, it had the ability to become a weapon creating a massive explosion. Frankfurter then relayed the message to President Roosevelt who "was anxious to explore ways for achieving safeguards in relation to X". [the atomic bomb]("Atomic Bomb Chemistry")(Long)
The Atomic Bomb
In 1939, Albert Einstein, world renown theoretical physicist, had already fled Germany and was living in the U.S. to avoid persecution from the Nazi's. At this time Einstein wrote a letter to U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt pressing the creation of an atomic research program and the use of an uncontrolled fission chain reaction. With speculation that the Axis powers had atomic technology and fear for the dangers of this, the Manhattan Project was born. The project started out slowly at only a few universities: Columbia University, the University of California at Berkele, and the University of Chicago. Amazingly, in 1942, Italian physicist, Enrico Fermi and a group of other physicists at the University of Chicago successfully created a controlled nuclear chain reaction. After this event, nuclear facilities were built in Tennessee, Washington, as well as in Los Alamos, New Mexico, where the assembly plant was built.(ushistory.org)
News that the Germans and the British were also experimenting surfaced. In 1941, American physicist from Columbia University, George B. Pegram, and American chemist, Harold C. Urey, traveled to England in order to help establish a coop effort in the bomb creation. Furthermore, in 1943, their efforts succeeded and a combined committee was established with British as well as the Canadians. Soon, the progress increased as scientists from both Canada and Britain joined those already hard at work in the U.S. In 1944, Los Alamos, previously only researching the development, underwent a change to production and development of the nuclear weapons. Although the project wasn't completely finished, the U.S. Air Force pushed for training to start. The under the command of Colonel Paul Tibbets the 393rd Bombardment Squadron began test dropping 5,500-pound dummy bombs. June 1944. From Utah to the Tinian Island, Tibbets and his men moved to the largest, newly formed airport required to accommodate the huge Boeing's B-29 Superfortresses that would be a vector for the nuclear weapon.(Gosling)
After much hardship, by the beginning of the 1945 researchers became optimistic that the weapon would be completed and be able to play a huge part in the war. With the loss of President Roosevelt in August of 1945, Harry S. Truman took the reins of presidency. Being oblivious to the Manhattan Project during Roosevelt's term, Truman was briefed immediately of the extent and the implications of the nuclear bomb project. Although Truman was unhappy he hadn't known sooner, he understood and agreed on the implications of this project for diplomatic and military purposes. (Gosling)
Production of the bomb was almost complete, and in May of 1945, a committee of scientists and Army Air Force officers devised a list of targets for the weapon--Hiroshima being one of them.(U.S. National Archives) They all agreed that bombing one of their major cities would leave a significant psychological impression on the Japaneese. (Gosling)
On July 26, 1945, the atomic age began as the first test fire of the Trinity bomb took place in the New Mexico desert. The explosion, producing 18.6 kiltons of power, lit up the New Mexico sky, and filled the air above with a mushroom cloud. A huge shock-wave followed along with searing heat along the desert floor. The metal tower surrounding the bomb was vaporized. The success of the Trinity bomb meant that the others could be prepared to be used against Japan. Word soon reached President Truman that the project was a success, and that the detonation of one of these bombs was also a success. The first bomb, given the name Little Boy, was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6th, 1945. Three days later the second bomb, Fat Man, was dropped on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. August 9th, 1945. These major events in WWII and history, led to the Japanese surrender and the end of the war. In the end, the total project tallied up to cost around $2 billion and employed more than 120,000 Americans who were to keep the project a secret throughout it all. (ushistory.org)(Gosling)
News that the Germans and the British were also experimenting surfaced. In 1941, American physicist from Columbia University, George B. Pegram, and American chemist, Harold C. Urey, traveled to England in order to help establish a coop effort in the bomb creation. Furthermore, in 1943, their efforts succeeded and a combined committee was established with British as well as the Canadians. Soon, the progress increased as scientists from both Canada and Britain joined those already hard at work in the U.S. In 1944, Los Alamos, previously only researching the development, underwent a change to production and development of the nuclear weapons. Although the project wasn't completely finished, the U.S. Air Force pushed for training to start. The under the command of Colonel Paul Tibbets the 393rd Bombardment Squadron began test dropping 5,500-pound dummy bombs. June 1944. From Utah to the Tinian Island, Tibbets and his men moved to the largest, newly formed airport required to accommodate the huge Boeing's B-29 Superfortresses that would be a vector for the nuclear weapon.(Gosling)
After much hardship, by the beginning of the 1945 researchers became optimistic that the weapon would be completed and be able to play a huge part in the war. With the loss of President Roosevelt in August of 1945, Harry S. Truman took the reins of presidency. Being oblivious to the Manhattan Project during Roosevelt's term, Truman was briefed immediately of the extent and the implications of the nuclear bomb project. Although Truman was unhappy he hadn't known sooner, he understood and agreed on the implications of this project for diplomatic and military purposes. (Gosling)
Production of the bomb was almost complete, and in May of 1945, a committee of scientists and Army Air Force officers devised a list of targets for the weapon--Hiroshima being one of them.(U.S. National Archives) They all agreed that bombing one of their major cities would leave a significant psychological impression on the Japaneese. (Gosling)
On July 26, 1945, the atomic age began as the first test fire of the Trinity bomb took place in the New Mexico desert. The explosion, producing 18.6 kiltons of power, lit up the New Mexico sky, and filled the air above with a mushroom cloud. A huge shock-wave followed along with searing heat along the desert floor. The metal tower surrounding the bomb was vaporized. The success of the Trinity bomb meant that the others could be prepared to be used against Japan. Word soon reached President Truman that the project was a success, and that the detonation of one of these bombs was also a success. The first bomb, given the name Little Boy, was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6th, 1945. Three days later the second bomb, Fat Man, was dropped on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. August 9th, 1945. These major events in WWII and history, led to the Japanese surrender and the end of the war. In the end, the total project tallied up to cost around $2 billion and employed more than 120,000 Americans who were to keep the project a secret throughout it all. (ushistory.org)(Gosling)
Bibliography
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